THE JET AGE RESERVE MODEL COLLECTION

PRESENTS

EASTER PARADE 2010

THE ARSENAL OF DEMOCRACY

Curtiss had been the primary supplier of fighter aircraft to the U.S. Army Air Corps. since its inception, and the company was dismayed when the Army procured the Boeing P-26 Peashooter in 1932. Curtiss responded by hiring Mr. Donovan Berlin, a bright young engineer who was working for Northrop. Donovan developed the Hawk 75, a streamlined, low-wing, monoplane coastal defense fighter. With an enhanced Twin Wasp engine the Hawk 75 evolved into the Curtiss P- 36 Hawk, which had a brief and fairly undistinguished career with the Air Corps. In 1938 a P-36 was retrofitted with the Allison in-line 12-cylinder, 1150 HP engine, and the P-40 was born.

The Curtiss Model 75 was a private venture by the company, and the first prototype constructed in 1934 featured all-metal construction with fabric-covered control surfaces, a Wright XR-1670-5 radial engine developing 900 hp (671 kW), and typical US Army Air Corps armament of one 0.30-calibre. and one 0.50-calibre. machine guns firing through the propeller arc. Also typical of the time was the total absence of armour or self-sealing fuel tanks. The distinctive landing gear which rotated 90 degrees to fold the main wheels flat into the thin trailing portion of the wing was actually a Boeing-patented design for which Curtiss had to pay royalties.

The P-36 Hawk prototype flew in May 1935, reaching 281 mph (452 km/h) at 10,000 ft (3,050 m) during early test flights. On 27 May 1935, the prototype was flown to Wright Field, Ohio, to compete in the USAAC fly-off for a new single-seat fighter but the contest was delayed because the Seversky entry crashed on the way to the contest. Curtiss took advantage of the delay to replace the unreliable engine with a Wright XR-1820-39 Cyclone producing 950 hp (709 kW) and to rework the fuselage, adding the distinctive scalloped rear windows to improve rear visibility. The new prototype was designated Model 75B with the R-1670 version retroactively designated Model 75D. The fly-off finally took place in April 1936. Unfortunately, the new engine failed to deliver its rated power and the aircraft attained only 285 mph (460 km/h).

Although its competitor, the Seversky P-35, also underperformed and was more expensive, it was still declared the winner and awarded a contract for 77 aircraft. Then, on 16 June 1936, Curtiss received an order from USAAC for three prototypes designated Y1P-36. The USAAC was concerned about political turmoil in Europe and about Seversky's ability to deliver P-35s in a reasonable timeframe and therefore wanted a backup fighter. The Y1P-36 (Model 75E) was powered by a Pratt & Whitney R-1830-13 Twin Wasp engine producing 900 hp (671 kW) and further enlarged scalloped rear canopy. The new aircraft performed so well that it won the 1937 USAAC competition with an order for 210 P-36A fighters.

Argentina bought a number of the simplified, fixed landing gear Hawk 75Os, (intended for rough-field operations and ease of maintenance) and purchased a manufacturing license for the type, subsequently building 200 aircraft from 1940. Argentinian Hawks remained in service until 1954. In March 1942, ten USAAC P-36As were transferred to Brazil.

The prototype of the Hawk 75H - a simplified version with fixed landing gear, like the 75O - was eventually sold to the Chinese Nationalist government who presented it to Claire L. Chennault for personal use. China also received two similar demonstrators, the Hawk 75Q. They also used a number of simplified Hawk 75Ms against the Japanese. The Hawk 75A-5 was built under license in China, but production was later moved to India, and these machines were absorbed into the RAF as the Mohawk IV.

After the fall of France, Germany agreed to sell captured Curtiss Hawk fighters to Finland in October 1940. In total, 44 captured aircraft were sold to Finland with three deliveries from 23 June 1941 to 5 January 1944. Not all were from the French stocks, but some were initially sold to Norway and captured in their wooden crates when the Germans conquered the country. The aircraft were given serial codes CU-551 to CU-585, including CU-562 modelled above.

In Finnish service, the Hawk was well-liked, affectionately called Sussu ("Sweetheart"). The Finnish Air Force enjoyed success with the type, credited with 190 1/3 kills by 58 pilots, from 1941-44. Finnish ace Kyosti Karhila scored 13 1/4 of his 32 victories in the Hawk, while the top Hawk ace K. Tervo scored 15 3/4 victories. The Hawks were flown by Lentolaivue 32 throughout their wartime operational service.

The Finnish Hawks were initially armed with either four or six 7.5 mm machine guns. While sufficient during the early phase of Continuation War, the increasing speeds and armour of Soviet aircraft soon showed this armament was not powerful enough. From 1942 the State Aircraft Factory replaced the fuselage machine guns with either one or two 12.7 mm Colt machine guns and installed two 7.7 mm Browning machine guns to each wing. The 12.7 mm Berezin UB or LKk/42 heavy machine guns were also used. The installation of heavier armament did not cause changes to the very good flying characteristics of the fighter but the armament was much more powerful against Soviet planes. The Finnish Hawks were also equipped with Revi 3D or C/12D gunsight.

Even before the P-36A entered production, the French Air Force entered negotiations with Curtiss for delivery of 300 aircraft. The negotiating process ended up being very drawn-out because the cost of the Curtiss fighters was double that of the French Morane-Saulnier MS 406 and Bloch MB 150 and the delivery schedule was deemed too slow. Since the USAAC was unhappy with the rate of domestic deliveries and believed that export aircraft would slow things down even more, it actively opposed the sale. Eventually, it took direct intervention from U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt to give the French test pilot Michel Detroyat a chance to fly the Y1P-36.

Detroyat's enthusiasm, problems with the MB.150, and the pressure of continuing German rearmament finally forced France to purchase 100 aircraft and 173 engines. The first Hawk 75A-1 arrived in France in December 1938 and began entering service in March 1939. After the first few examples, aircraft were delivered in pieces and assembled in France by the Societe Nationale de Constructions Aeronautiques du Centre. Officially designated Curtiss H75-C1 (the "Hawk" name was not used in France), the aircraft were powered by Pratt & Whitney R-1830-SC-G engines with 900 hp (671 kW) and had metric, translated instruments, a seat for French dorsal parachutes, a French-style throttle which operated in reverse from U.S. and British aircraft (e.g. full throttle was to the rear rather than to the front) and armament of four 7.5 mm machine guns. The aircraft evolved through several modifications and by the time France fell to German occupation, the French Air Force had 291 H75As in service.

On 8 September 1939, aircraft from Groupe de Chasse II/4 were credited with shooting down two Luftwaffe Messerschmitt Bf 109Es, the first Allied air victory of World War II on the Western front. During 1939-1940, French pilots claimed 230 confirmed and 80 probable victories in H75s against only 29 aircraft lost in aerial combat. Of the 11 French aces of the early part of the war, seven flew H75s. The leading ace of the time was Lt. Marin La Meslee with 15 confirmed and five probable victories in the type. H75-equipped squadrons were evacuated to French North Africa before the Armistice to avoid capture by the Germans. While under the Vichy Government, these units clashed with British aircraft over Mers el Kebir and Dakar. During Operation Torch in North Africa, French H75s fought against U.S. Navy F4F Wildcats, losing 15 aircraft to seven shot down American planes. From late 1942 on, the Allies started re-equipping French units formerly under Vichy and the H75s were replaced by P-40 Kittyhawks and P-39 Airacobra.

In October 1939, the Netherlands East Indies government ordered 24 Hawk 75A-7s, powered by 1200 hp Cyclones. They had 4 x 7.7 mm machine guns (two in the nose and one in each wing) and could carry 2 x 100-pound bombs. The fighters were shipped in 1940 (and were almost rerouted to the Netherlands, when Germany invaded) and were used extensively leading up to the Japanese attack. However, by that time the aircraft had flown so many hours, the engines were worn out.

These Dutch Hawks formed 1-VlG IV, or Vliegtuiggroep IV, 1e afdeling (1st Squadron, Airgroup IV) of the ML-KNIL and some with 1-VlG V. They saw action over Malakka, Sumatra and Java, successfully bombing a railroad and intercepting bombers. They also participated in the extensive dogfights over Surabaya, where US, RAF and ML-KNIL aircraft together fought Japanese bombers and fighters.

Norway ordered 24 Twin Wasp-powered Hawk 75A-6s, of which 19 were delivered and seven assembled at the time of the German invasion. None of the aircraft were combat-ready. The disassembled aircraft were disabled by a single customs employee who smashed the instruments and cut all the wires he could reach. Norwegian Hawks captured by the Germans were part of the batch sent to Finland. Norway also ordered 36 Cyclone-powered Hawk 75A-8s, most (30) of which were delivered to a Norwegian training base (established by the exile-government in London and named "Little Norway") near Toronto, Ontario, Canada, as advanced trainers. Still later, they were resold to the U.S. as the P-36G.

Ten Hawk 75A-9s were delivered to Persia, but were captured by the British while still in crates. These were then used by the RAF in India as Mohawk IVs. In 1943 the U.S. sent 28 Hawks to Peru under the Lend-Lease agreement. These were ex-Norwegian P-36Gs that had served in Canada. Twelve British Mohawks ended up in Portugal, after they became obsolete in the RAF.

A few Hawk 75Ns were used by Thailand during the French-Thai War. They also fought at the Battle of Prachuab Khirikan against Japanese forces.

Like others, the Royal Air Force also displayed considerable interest in the aircraft. Comparison of a borrowed French Hawk 75A-2 with a Supermarine Spitfire Mk I revealed that the Hawk had several advantages over the early variant of the iconic British fighter. The Hawk was found to have lighter controls than the Spitfire at speeds over 300 mph (480 km/h), especially in diving attacks, and was easier to manoeuvre in a dogfight thanks to the less-sensitive elevator and better all-around visibility. The Hawk was also easier to control on takeoff and landing. Not surprisingly, the Spitfire's superior acceleration and top speed ultimately gave it the advantage of being able to engage and leave combat at will.

Although Britain decided not to purchase the aircraft, they soon came in possession of 229 Hawks comprised of diverted shipments to occupied France and aircraft flown by escaping French pilots. The aircraft received the designations Mohawk I to IV, mirroring French Hawk 75A-1 to A-4, and were fitted with 0.303-calibre Vickers K machine guns and conventional throttles (forward to increase power). Obsolete by the standards of the European theatre, 72 Mohawks were sent to the South African Air Force, and a number served in India and Burma.

In April 1941, the Indian government ordered 48 Cyclone-powered Hawk 75As to be built by Hindustan Aircraft. The first Indian-built machine was test flown on July 31, 1942. Four additional machines were completed before the project was abandoned. The Indian-built machines were absorbed into the RAF as Mohawk IVs. Similarly, Chinese license production of the Hawk 75A-5 was moved to India, and these machines were also absorbed into RAF as Mohawk IV.

The first production P-36As were delivered to the 20th Pursuit Group at Barksdale Field in Louisiana in April 1938. The aircraft's service history was marred by numerous teething problems with engine exhaust, skin buckling over landing gear, and weak points in the airframe, severely restricting the performance envelope. By the time these issues were resolved, the P-36 was considered obsolete and was relegated to training units and overseas detachments at Albrook Field in the Panama Canal Zone, Elmendorf Field in Alaska, and Wheeler Field in Hawaii. The only combat with US-operated P-36s took place during the Pearl Harbor attack on 7 December 1941. Four of the 39 aircraft were able to take off during the attack and were credited with shooting down two Japanese Nakajima B5N bombers, first U.S. aerial victories of the Pacific War.

The Chance Vought Corsair saw service in World War II, the Korean War and subsequent "brush fire" conflicts of the Cold War and post Colonial era, notably with the French Aeronavale and other services). Indeed, the Corsair served in some air forces until the 1960s, following the longest production run of any piston-engined fighter in history (1940 - 1953).

The Corsair started life as the result of a U.S. Navy requirement for a carrier aircraft which could match the performance of the best land and carrier-based fighter planes. Designed in 1938 by Rex Biesel, the first prototype Corsair designated XF4U-1 first flew on 29 May 1940. Powered by a Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp radial engine, became the first U.S. single-engine production aircraft capable of 400 mph (640 km/h) in level flight. This was a remarkable achievement for Vought, as compared to land-based counterparts, carrier aircraft are "overbuilt" and heavier to withstand the extreme stress of deck landings.

The Corsair first entered service in 1942. Although designed as a carrier fighter, initial operation from carrier decks proved to be troublesome. Its slow speed handling was tricky due to the port wing stalling before the starboard wing. This factor, together with poor visibility over the long "Hose Nose" engine casing, made landing a Corsair on a carrier a difficult task.

For these reasons, most Corsairs initially went to Marine Corps squadrons who operated off land-based runways, which in turn led Goodyear to build some early Corsairs with fixed, non-folding wings.The USMC aviators welcomed the Corsair with open arms as its performance was far superior to the Grumman F4F-3 and -4 Wildcat, which were being used at that time, and superior in a number of ways to the F6F Hellcat, which replaced the Wildcat.

Moreover, the Corsair was able to outperform the primary Japanese fighter, the Mitsubishi A6M "Zero". While the Zero could out-turn the F4U at slower speeds, the Corsair was faster and could out-climb and out-dive the enemy fighters. Tactics developed early in the war, such as the Thach Weave, took advantage of the Corsair's strengths.

This performance advantage, combined with the ability to take severe punishment, meant that a pilot could place an enemy aircraft in the killing zone from the F4U's six .50-caliber Browning machine guns and keep him there long enough to inflict major damage. The 2,300 rounds carried by the Corsair gave over one full minute of fire from each gun. This, fired in three-to-six-second bursts, made the U-Bird a devastating weapon against aircraft, ground targets, and even ships.

The Royal Navy also received Corsairs from 1943 and went ahead with flying them from Fleet Air Arm (FAA) carriers successfully in combat with the British Pacific Fleet and in Norway. The Corsair also served with the Royal New Zealand Air Force during World War II

As the most capable carrier-based fighter-bomber of the war, demand for Corsairs soon overwhelmed Vought's manufacturing capability, resulting in additional aircraft being produced by the Goodyear Company (as the FG-1) and the Brewster Company (as the F3A-1). From the first prototype delivery to the US Navy in 1940, to final delivery in 1953 to the French, 12,571 F4U Corsairs had been manufactured by Vought

The Corsair is popularly known as "The Sweetheart of the Marianas" and "The Angel of Okinawa" for its roles in these campaigns respectively—the names were given by ground troops rather than by naval and Marine personnel. Among pilots, however, the aircraft was nicknamed "Ensign Eliminator" and "Bent-Wing Eliminator" because it required many more hours of flight training to master than other Navy carrier-borne aircraft. It was also called simply "U-bird" or "Bent Wing Bird".

The Corsair has been named the official aircraft of Connecticut, due to its connection with Sikorsky Aircraft, in legislation sponsored by state senator George "Doc" Gunther; Gunther also organized a Corsair Celebration and Symposium at Sikorsky Memorial Airport in Stratford, Connecticut, on Memorial Day, 29 May 2006

In April 1940, British Purchasing Commission gave the North American Aircraft Company 120 days to produce an advanced fighter prototype that met their specifications. The result was the North American P-51 Mustang. With its 1,150 hp Allison engine, laminar-flow wing to reduce drag, ducted coolant radiator under the fuselage, and wide-track landing gear, the Mustang easily achieved outstanding marks from the British. In fact, the Royal Air Force began receiving their order of the Mustang I variant just two months before Pearl Harbor. The fighters were equipped with four .50 caliber and four .303 caliber guns. The Mustang’s design allowed it to carry an ample amount of ammunition, as well as two to four times the amount of fuel of its rivals, making it ideal for long-range missions.

As the war progressed, air-to-air combat began to occur at higher and higher altitudes. Pilots quickly discovered the thin air at higher altitudes greatly reduced the Allison engine’s performance, so the Mustang was relegated to low-level reconnaissance and photographic missions. But in 1942, the United States Army Air Force re-examined the Mustang’s capabilities and placed a larger order for several different variants.

Later that year, North American began to test Merlin engines in the P-51, to improve its performance at higher altitudes. The tests were successful and demand for the P-51B and P-51C (both equipped with Merlin engines) increased dramatically. Almost 4,000 of these versions were produced with four 12.7 mm guns and attachments for two-drop tanks or 1,000 lb bombs. 

The most highly produced Mustang, the P-51D built in 1944, had a more powerful Merlin engine, six .50-inch guns, an extra dorsal fin, and a sliding canopy. North American produced close to 8,000 ‘D’ variants between its Los Angeles and Dallas factories. The fastest production allied fighter, the P-51-H, was built in 1945, but only 555 were completed before VJ Day.

Several post-war versions of the Mustang were manufactured including the F-82 Twin Mustang. This double fuselage airplane with two Allison engines was used as a night fighter, as well as an escort aircraft. Later versions were also made under license by Commonwealth Aircraft in Australia. North American P-51 Mustangs served with air forces all over the world, as late as 1979.

The Thunderbolt - represented in this display by one 1/48 scale and two 1/72 scale models - was the most famous of all the Republic aircraft in WWII. First flown on 6 May 1941, the P-47 was designed as a (then) large, high-performance fighter/bomber, utilizing the large Pratt and Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp engine to give it excellent performance and a large load-carrying capability. The first deliveries of the P-47 took place in June 1942, when the US Army Air Corps began flying it in the European theatre of operations.

Though it was an excellent airplane, several improvements were made as production continued, with each improvement adding power, maneuverability and range. As the war progressed, the Thunderbolt, or "Jug," as it was affectionately called, gained a reputation as a reliable and extremely tough airplane, able to take incredible amounts of damage and still return its pilot home safely. P-47s logged almost 2 million flight hours during the war, during which they were responsible for the destruction of over 7,000 enemy aircraft in the air and on the ground in the European Theater alone.

Later in the war, Jugs served as escort fighters for B-29 bombers in the Pacific. Mostly, though, they excelled in the ground-attack role, strafing and bombing their way across the battlefields of Europe. Early versions, up through the P-47C had "razorback" fuselages, but the popular P-47D featured a bubble canopy which gave the pilot increased rearward visibility.

P-47s were also used during the war by the air forces of Brazil, Britain, France, Mexico and the Soviet Union. Following the war, the Jug served for nine more years in the US, flown by the Air National Guard. It continued to serve for many additional years with the air forces of over 15 nations around the world.

The Kittyhawk I saw two major changes from the earlier Tomahawk. It used the Allison V-1710-39 engine, which gave better performance at altitude than the earlier engines, although still not as good as that provided by the Rolls Royce Merlin. The two .50 calibre machine guns from the nose were also moved to the wings. The RAF received 20 Kittyhawk Is, before requesting an increase in firepower, which resulted in the Mk IA.

Kittyhawk 1 LG139 of 112 Squadron RAF was - in February 1942 - the regular mount of Flight Officer Neville Duke, later to rise to the rank of Squadron Leader, World Air Speed Record Holder and personal pilot to Sir George Dowty.

The Mk IA  Curtiss Kittyhawk was the same as the P- 40E ( as depicted in the model above) . The main change from the Mk I was the replacement of the .30 calibre wing guns with .50 calibre guns, giving the new model six .50 calibre guns. 1,500 Kittyhawk IAs were produced, and the model was used by the RAF and several Commonwealth air forces.

The first Kittyhawk IIs were similar to the P-40F, using Packard Merlin XX engines which improved the performance at altitude. 250 of these aircraft were allocated to the RAF, but in the event none of the reached RAF service, going instead to the Russians and Free French. The P-40L was also called the Kittyhawk II by the RAF, but again did not serve in significant numbers.

The RAF designation Kittyhawk III was also allocated to two different versions of the fighter. It was first used for the P-40K, with the Allison V-1710-73 engine and six .50 calibre machine guns. Only 21 of these guns served with the RAF. The designation was retained for the 595 P-40Ms received by the RAF. The only main change between the two types was the use of the Allison V-1710-81 engine.

The RAF and Commonwealth air forces received 586 P-40Ns, under the designation Kittyhawk IV. This was the best version of the Kittyhawk, with the best top speed, of 378 mph. Originally armed with four .50 calibre guns, two extra guns were soon restored. The Kittyhawk IV was normally used as a ground attack aircraft, as despite the improvement in performance it could not compete with the most modern German aircraft.

The Kittyhawk reached North Africa in December 1941, when it replaced the Tomahawks of 3 RAAF Squadron. The Kittyhawk was the RAF’s main fighter in the desert during the first half of 1942 but sadly it was badly outclassed by the Messerschmitt Bf 109F. The German fighter had much better performance at altitude, and the Kittyhawk suffered heavy loses. The German pilots could fly above the Kittyhawks, swooping down on the lower flying allied aircraft, and then climbing away. The fighting was not entirely one-sided, and not every German or Italian aircraft was a Bf 109. The Kittyhawk could cope with most other Axis aircraft present in North Africa.

With the Americans in the war, the Kittyhawks in North Africa were soon joined by P-40s of the USAAF. Sheer weight of numbers eventually wore down the German’s Desert Air Force. The P-40 also played a part in the Allied victory at El Alamein, in its ground attack role. Although its role in North Africa became increasingly that of a fighter bomber, it retained a fighter role for the rest of the campaign. Between 1 January 1942 and May 1943, Kittyhawk pilots had claimed 420 victories.

Although many of the Kittyhawk squadrons used in North Africa reequipped with Spitfires, Mustangs and other more modern aircraft for the invasion of Italy, two retained their Kittyhawks until the end of the war. In Italy the P-40 was used almost entirely as a ground attack aircraft, taking advantage of its good low altitude speed and rugged construction.

At the same time as the RAAF was getting its first Kittyhawks in the desert, the Japanese entered the war. Australia itself was suddenly vulnerable. Twenty five Kittyhawk Is from the RAF order were diverted to Australia, where they equipped 75 Squadron. On 21 March 1942 this squadron transferred to Port Moresby. There it came face to face with the Mistubishi A6M Zero. By 9 May only two aircraft remained serviceable, but the squadron had shot down 18 Japanese aircraft and destroyed 17 on the ground, at a cost of 22 Kittyhawks.

Two new Kittyhawk Squadrons (76 and 77) arrived in time to play a decisive part in repelling an attempted Japanese attack on Milne Bay on 24 August. This marked a major turning point in New Guinea. RAAF Kittyhawks played a part in the allied counter attack in New Guinea. As the Pacific war moved closer to Japan, the RAAF was left to deal with the isolated Japanese garrisons left behind.

Russia received 2,000 Kittyhawks, starting with small numbers from British orders. A large number were used for advanced training, but some did see combat in the northern front, against the Finns.

In 1939 the Brewster F2A Buffalo became the first monoplane fighter aircraft used by the US Navy. In December 1941, it suffered severe losses with both British Commonwealth and Dutch air forces in South East Asia, for reasons unrelated to the basic design. It also saw action with US Marine Corps squadrons at the Battle of Midway. The F2A was derided by some American servicemen as a "flying coffin", due to poor construction and perceptions of its general performance. Despite this reputation, the F2A proved a potent weapon with the Finnish Air Force, against the Soviet Air Force.

In 1935 the US Navy issued a requirement for a carrier based fighter to replace the Grumman F3F biplane for which the monoplane Brewster Model 139 - complete with wing flaps, retractable undercarriage and an enclosed cockpit competed against he biplane Grumman XF4F-1

The Navy awarded Brewster the contract; the Model 139 was redesignated as XF2A-1 and the prototype first flew on 2 December 1937. Early test results showed that it was far in advance of the Grumman entry, but while the XF4F-1 would not enter production, it would later re-emerge as the Grumman Wildcat monoplane fighter.

The Brewster XF2A-1 had a stubby fuselage and mid-set wings. It was all-metal, with flush-riveted, stressed aluminum construction, although flying surfaces were still fabric-covered. Split flaps, a hydraulically-operated retractable main undercarriage (and partially retractable tail wheel) and a streamlined framed canopy gave the XF2A-1 a modern look. A Wright R-1820-22 Cyclone producing 850 hp gave it a top speed of 277.5 mph, later boosted to 304 mph at 16,000 ft after improvements were made to the cowling streamlining and carburettor/oil cooler intakes.

Service testing of the Brewster prototype began in January 1938 and, in June, the Navy ordered 54 of the F2A-1 production model. The initial armament mix of two machine guns, a .30 calibre and .50 calibre Browning machine gun mounted in engine cowling firing through the propeller arc, would later be augmented by the provision of an additional two .50 caliber machine guns, one in each wing outboard of the landing gear.

A later variant, the F2A-2, of which 43 were ordered, included a more powerful engine, a better propeller and integral flotation gear, and was followed by the F2A-3. Unfortunately, the improvements added weight that adversely affected the fighter's performance and caused perennial problems with its easily collapsible landing gear especially in shipboard service.

Of the first deliveries, beginning in June 1939, nine went to Squadron VF-3 on the US Saratoga. The balance of 44 were declared surplus and sold to Finland. Although it was becoming clear that the F2A was inferior to the latest German fighters, in early World War II, all modern fighter types were in demand. Consequently, the Royal Air Force, Belgium and the Netherlands East Indies purchased several hundred of the land-based versions.

Just before the start of World War II, Belgium sought more modern aircraft to expand and modernize its air force and ordered 40 F2A-2s. These had a factory designation of B-339 with a different engine, the 1 000 bhp Wright R-1820-G105. The arrestor hook was deleted and the aircraft was modified with a slightly longer tail. Unfortunately, only two aircraft reached France during the collapse of Belgium and they were later captured by the Germans. Six aircraft ended up in Martinique with the French Air Force, where they were eventually destroyed. The rest of the order was passed to the UK, where they were considered unfit for duty in western Europe and they were supplied to British Commonwealth air forces in Asia.

Facing a shortage in combat aircraft in January 1940, the British government established the British Purchasing Commission to acquire US aircraft that would help supplement domestic production. Among the fighters that caught the commission's attention was the Buffalo. The UK ordered 170 of the variant known as B-339E.

The B-339 was fitted with an export approved 1,100 hp Wright Cyclone engine and redesigned for land use with navy equipment such as the life raft and arrestor hook removed.The RAF stipulated numerous upgrades to their order, including replacement of the standard ring and bead gun sight with a British Mk III reflector gun sight, and improving pilot protection, by adding reinforced armor plating and installing armoured glass behind the canopy windshield.

They were sent to Royal Australian Air Force, RAF and Royal new Zealand Air Force fighter squadrons in Singapore, Malaya and Burma, shortly before the outbreak of war with Japan.

Prior to December 1941, the Allied air forces seriously underestimated the numbers, pilots, leadership and capability of their Japanese opponents. Despite having initial successes against the Nakajima Ki-43 Oscar, the five British Commonwealth squadrons that flew Buffalos in the Malayan campaign, suffered severe losses on the ground and in the air, especially during the first week of the campaign, resulting in the ongoing merger of squadrons and their gradual evacuation to the Dutch East Indies

During December 1941 to January 1942 the two RAAF, two RAF and one RNZAF squadrons were beset with numerous problems, including: poorly-built and ill-equipped aircraft; poor supplies of spare parts; inadequate numbers of support staff; airfields that were difficult to defend against air attack; lack of a clear and coherent command structure; antagonism between RAF and RAAF squadrons and personnel, and inexperienced pilots lacking appropriate training.

The Hawker Hurricanes which succeeded the Buffalos from 20 January 1942, also suffered severe losses from ground attacks, and were also virtually wiped out.

Four British Commonwealth pilots: Geoff Fisken, Maurice Holder, Benjamin Clare and Richard Vanderfield, became aces on the Buffalo. Fisken, the highest scoring of them, later flew Curtiss P-40s (Kittyhawks in RAF parlance) and became the highest-scoring Commonwealth pilot within the Pacific theatre.

The Militaire Luchtvaart van het Koninklijt Nederlands-Indisch Leger (ML-KNIL; "Military Air Service of the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army") had ordered 144 Brewster B-339C and 339D models, the former with used engines supplied by the Dutch and the latter with new and more powerful engines that Brewster purchased from Wright. By the time war began, only 71 had arrived in the Netherlands East Indies, and not all were in service. A small number served briefly at Singapore before being withdrawn for the defense of Java.

As the Dutch Buffalos were lighter than the F2A-3 used by the US, they were able to successfully dogfight the Japanese Nakajima Ki-43 Oscar, although it was still out-turned by the Mitsubishi A6M Zero.

Apart from their role as fighters, they were also used as dive bombers against Japanese troopships. Though reinforced by the Commonwealth Buffalos retreating from Malaya, the Dutch squadrons were unable to stem the superiority of Japanese forces at ground level, and they flew their last mission on 7 March 1942. Altogether 17 Dutch pilots were killed, 30 Buffalos were shot down, 15 were destroyed on the ground, and several were lost to misadventure. In return, Dutch pilots claimed 55 enemy aircraft destroyed. In a major engagement on 19 February 1942, eight Dutch Brewsters intercepted a formation of about 35 Japanese bombers, which had an escort of about 20 Zeroes. The Dutch pilots destroyed 11 Japanese aircraft and lost four Buffalos. Two Dutch pilots, Jacob van Helsdingen and August Diebel, scored the highest on the Buffalo. Both recorded a total of three victories.

The US Marine Corps flew F2As at the Battle of Midway, and suffered 15 losses out of 25 aircraft. The grim outcome was the primary source for the reputation of the Brewster being one of the worst fighters flown in combat. However, the main reasons for the losses included the obsolescence of F2A-3, inexperience of USMC pilots, who attempted to enter into a Great War - style dogfight with experienced Japanese Mitsubishi Zero fighters, and the fact that the Buffalos were outnumbered and caught at a tactical disadvantage.

The poor performance of the Buffalo in the aerial battle sparked Finnish ace Hans Wind to write his combat manual on Brewster; he analysed the air combat, the tactical errors the Americans made and proposed tactics which the Finnish Brewster pilots were to use when encountering different types of enemy fighters. They were later used with remarkable success in 1942-43. Meanwhile, the Battle of Midway marked the end of F2A-3's American combat career. The surviving airframes were transported to mainland US as advanced trainers.

In Finland the Brewsters enjoyed their greatest success. The aircraft did not arrive in time for the Winter War, but their impact in the Continuation War (1941-44) was remarkable. The fighter was never referred to as the Buffalo in Finland; it was known simply as the Brewster, or sometimes by the nickname Taivaan helmi ("Sky Pearl") or Pohjoisten taivaiden helmi ("Pearl of the Northern Skies"). Other nicknames were Pylly-Valtteri ("Butt-Walter"), Amerikanrauta ("American hardware" or "American car") and Lentävä kaljapullo ("flying beer-bottle"). The 44 Brewsters used by the FAF received the serial numbers BW-351 to BW-394. It appears the workmanship of the Finnish airframes was also better than those produced later; this was a common phenomenon as the aircraft factories were manned by a less-skilled workforce after the start of World War II.

The Brewster was regarded as being very easy to fly and many Finnish pilots commented that it was a "gentleman's plane" while the Messerschmitt Bf 109 (also used by the FAF) was "a killing machine." Brewsters were also popular within the FAF because of their long range and endurance, and their good maintenance record. This was due in part to FAF mechanics, who solved a problem plaguing the Wright Cyclone engine by inverting one of the piston rings in each cylinder, thus enhancing engine reliability. The Finnish aircraft also dispensed with most of the US Navy gear such as a life raft, resulting in a considerably lighter aircraft.

In the end, the Brewster gained a reputation as one of the most successful combat aircraft ever flown by the Finnish Air Force. In service during 1941-1945, the Brewsters were credited with 496 Soviet and German aircraft destroyed, against the loss of 19 Brewsters: a victory ratio of 26:1.

During the Continuation War, Lentolaovue 24 (Fighter Squadron 24) was equipped with the B-239s until May 1944, when the Brewsters were transferred to Havittajalentolaivue 26 (Fighter Squadron 26). Most of the pilots of Lentolaivue 24 were Winter War combat veterans and the squadron achieved total of 459 kills with B-239s, while losing 15 Brewsters in combat. For example, between 25 june 1941 and 31 December 1941, LeLv 24 scored 135 kills with Brewsters at a cost of two pilots and two Brewster Buffalos.

The top-scoring Buffalo pilot was Hans Wind, with 39 kills in B-239s. Wind scored 26 of his kills while flying BW-393 and Eino Luukkanen scored seven more kills with the same aircraft. After evaluation of kills claimed on Soviet actual losses, BW-364 is credited with 42½ kills in total, possibly making it the fighter aircraft with the greatest number of victories in the history of air warfare. BW-393 is credited with 40 victories.

The top scoring Finnish ace, Ilmari Juutilainen, scored 34 of his 94 and one-half kills while flying B-239s, including 28 kills with BW-364.

Although the Buffalo was clearly obsolete in 1944, barely holding its own against Soviet fighters, with most airframes worn out, LeLv 26 pilots still scored some 35 victories against the Soviets in the summer of 1944. The last aerial victory by a Brewster against the Soviet Union was scored over the Karelian Isthmus on 17 June 1944. After Finland agreed to a truce, it was obliged to turn against its former ally, Germany, and a Brewster pilot, Lt Erik Teromaa (11 kills), claimed a Luftwaffe Stuka on 3 October 1944 during the Lapland War.

The last flight made by a Buffalo in Finnish service was on 14 September 1948

Because the P-26 flew at 234 mph - and outclimbed slower biplane fighters - the US Army ordered 136 production-model Peashooters. Acclaimed by pilots for its speed and maneuverability, the small but feisty P-26 formed the core of pursuit squadrons throughout the United States.

Twelve export versions, 11 for China and one for Spain, were built. One of a group of P-26s, turned over to the Philippine Army late in 1941, was among the first Allied fighters to down a Japanese airplane in World War II. Funds to buy the export version of the Peashooter were partly raised by Chinese Americans with contribution boxes placed on the counters of Chinese restaurants.

The Douglas Boston was the best of a series of American light bombers to serve with the RAF during the Second World War, serving with ten RAF and SAAF bomber squadrons and three night intruder squadrons. 

The Boston III was often used to replace the Bristol Blenheim ,having a top speed of over 300mph and a maximum bomb load of 4 000lb, and began to reach Britain in the summer of 1941, having been ordered in 1940. The Boston I and II were designations given to similar aircraft ordered by the French, and which entered RAF service after the fall of France.

The first to get the Boston was No.88 (Hong Kong) Squadron - as depicted in the model above - replacing its Blenheims in October 1941. Nos.107 and 226 squadrons were next to gain the Boston, but it would be two years before a fourth bomber squadron – No.342 (Free French) – would receive the type.

Nos.99 and 226 squadrons were the first to take the Boston into combat, taking part in the unsuccessful attempts to stop the German warships Scharnhorst, Prinz Eugen and Gneisenau  return to German ports from Brest in February 1942. Only one aircraft from the two squadrons actually found the German ships, inflicting no damage but escaping intact.

The main role of these Boston squadrons was to carry out daylight bombing raids over France, Belgium and Holland as part of the RAF’s policy of “leaning over the channel”. These raids were intended to provoke the Luftwaffe into responding, generally without success, but the Boston did prove to be a capable medium bomber, fast and robust with a useful bomb load. The first proper Boston attack came on 8 March 1942, against the Matford Works at Poissy.  

During 1943 No.99 and 226 converted to new aircraft while No.342 (Free French) Squadron converted to the Boston. The three Boston squadrons (Nos.88, 107 and 342) formed 137th Wing, 2nd Tactical Air Force. In the first half of 1944 they concentrated on attacking invasion targets in northern France, amongst them coastal defences, German airfields and communications. 

After D-Day the wing moved to France, supporting the Allied armies as they advanced towards Germany. The Boston was slowly phased out during this period – No.107 Squadron was withdrawn and replaced with No.226, which had converted to the Mitchell, and in April 1945 No.88 Squadron was disbanded, leaving No.342 (Free French) as the only Boston squadron still operating in Germany at the end of the war. 

The Boston III (Intruder) was used by three squadrons – Nos.23, 418 and 605 – as a night intruder, operating over German occupied Europe at night in a role made more famous by the Mosquito, but pioneered in part by the Havoc, the name given to earlier versions of the DB-7 taken from French orders.

The Boston entered service in North Africa with 24 Squadron South African Air Force in November 1941, just before the first American A-20 Havocs arrived in the area. At first No.24 SAAF used its Bostons on unescorted reconnaissance missions in small groups, and suffered very heavy losses. By the end of December the squadron had to be withdrawn to recover but returned to the fight on 22 February 1942, this time operating with fighter escorts.

They were joined on 15 March 1942 by 12 Squadron SAAF. The two squadrons operated together during the desert battles of 1942, which culminated in the second battle of El Alamein. In the period before that battle they were used to attack German tank columns, air fields and lines of communication, while after the victory at El Alamein they carried out a large number of low level attacks. These were dangerous missions and the squadrons suffered heavy losses, but they were able to destroy a large number of the crucial soft skinned transport vehicles needed by the retreating Germans and Italians.

The number of Boston squadrons doubled in March 1943 when Nos.18 and 144 converted to the aircraft. All four squadrons were involved in the final fighting in Tunisia, which ended with the German surrender in May 1943. They then took part in the early stages of the fighting in Italy, taking part in the invasion of Sicily and southern Italy. The two South African squadrons converted to the B-26 Marauder in December 1943-January 1944, and for most of 1944 only two squadrons operated the Boston.

The number rose to four again in October 1944 when Nos.13 and 55 squadrons converted to the Boston from the Baltimore. The four squadrons (Nos.13, 18, 55 and 114) formed 232nd Wing, operating the Boston IV and V. The wing operated at night, often carrying out prolonged nuisance raids over German positions, attacking the same point at regular intervals through the night.

Later in 1944 No.13 (from October 1944), No.18, No.55 (from October 1944) and No.114 Squadrons formed 232nd Wing. The Boston IV and V replaced the Boston III and the wing carried out night bombing missions in Northern Italy. A Boston V is credited with carrying out the final night raid in Italy on 30 April 1945. After that the Bostons were used to drop surrender leaflets to isolated German troops. The four squadrons retained their Bostons until 1946.

Boston IIIs fitted with Turbinlite equipment also served with 771 Squadron of the Fleet Air Arm based at RNAS Tern at Twatt in Orkney.

With its bomb load reduced to 1,000lb the Havoc I (Intruder) could reach German air bases in northern France, Belgium and Holland. No.23 Squadron was the first to receive the Havoc and from March 1941 until August 1942 it flew low level night time missions, harassing the Germans while suffered very low losses. The Havoc was joined by the Boston III (Intruder) in July 1942, before converting to the De Haviland Mosquito in August 1942. The Havocs moved on to No.605 Squadron, which operated the Havoc (Intruder) from 14 July 1942, before replacing them with the Boston in October and the Mosquito in August 1943.

No.85 Squadron was the only squadron to use the Havoc I and Havoc II (Night Fighter) exclusively, receiving its first aircraft in February 1941. The Havoc I (Night Fighter) replaced the Boulton-Paul Defiant, with which it had achieved a single night time victory. The Havoc went operational on 7 April, and only two days later the squadron scored one confirmed, one probable and one damaged.

The Havoc I remained in use to the end of 1941, while the Havoc II (Night Fighter), with twice the firepower, arrived in July 1941. The squadron operated the Havoc for eighteen months, before replacing them with the Mosquito in September 1942. No.25 Squadron also operated a number of Havocs alongside its Bristol Beaufighters. The Beaufighter IF was more heavily armed and had twice the range of the Havoc I, although the Havoc was slightly faster.

Numerically the largest group of squadrons to operate the Havoc were the ten Turbinlite squadrons that had a brief existence from September 1942 to January 1943, when the entire idea was abandoned. The Turbinlite was a massive spotlight that was installed in the nose of a Havoc or Boston. A total of 21 Havoc I (Turbinlites), 39 Havoc II (Turbinlites) and at least three Boston III (Turbinlites) were produced.

The idea was that the Havoc would use its radar to find a German aircraft, then catch it in the spotlight and let a normal day fighter attack it. At first the Havocs operated in Turbinlite flights, starting with No.1422 Flight (Air Illumination Unit) working alongside Hurricane squadrons, but the two aircraft rarely met up, and so in September 1942 ten Turbinlite squadrons were formed, operating a mix of Havocs, Bostons and Hurricanes. This improved the cooperation between the two types of aircraft, but successes were still rare. As better radar equipped night fighters began to appear the Turbinlite concept was abandoned, and all ten squadrons were disbanded early in 1943.